这个不难的,你是要共边吗?
是ProNest8还是2015,
方君焊割有视频教程。
pronest8自动排样图形会旋转
自动排版是零件肯定要旋转啊,
它按照认为最适合省料的角度去碰撞的,
ProNest8有点过时了,
方君焊割现在用的ProNest2015,
操作更加方便,功能也更多一些。
给你视频参考一下吧。
我只需要把板材按形状割开,边缘不切割,需要确定参考点和边缘线
自动排版也不会切割边缘啊,
你也可以手动排版
FIFA Online3隐藏属性含义解析 隐藏属性具体什么意思
一、技巧类隐藏(Skill Traits)
1、巧妙射门( Finesse Shot)(超玩数据库翻译为“精准射门”)
Increases your side foot effectiveness in front of goal,If a player has this trait, Which are particularly useful when shooting from in and around the penalty box. Finesse shots are generally more accurate than regular shots, but will be much less powerful,for lot of curve to occur.
提高【内脚背】射门(搓射)的有效性。如果一个球员拥有此隐藏特性,他在禁区附近的射门会更加精准,但是力度会变小,因为这个隐藏触发时弧线会变大。
2、天赋(Flair)
Players with the flair trait are usually more creative than others when they’re on the ball.
拥有此项隐藏的球员在拥有球(接球、带球、停球、射门等动作)的时候更加有创意(动作更加特殊)。
3、远距离界外球(Long Throw-In)
Adds extra distance to your throw-ins
掷界外球的时候扔出的距离更远。
4、大力界外球(Giant Throw-In)
Allows you to launch throw-ins right into the box,Try keep the aim of these away from keeper as it will go straight to them otherwise.
当在对方禁区边线附近扔界外球的时候才出发此隐藏特性,可以直接扔到大禁区。但是往往被门将没收。也不是什么好隐藏。
14赛季好像J.博阿滕和一个叫拉斯姆斯·埃尔姆的CMD拥有此项神技。
5、强力头球(Power Header)
Adds extra power to your headers at goal,This trait is for players who are amazing in the air. They have extra power on headers and are a deadly threat at corners。
增加头球射门的力度。谓之曰角球杀手。14赛季的弟媳和水爷都有此神技,关键是身高能顶到球吗?
6、大力任意球(Takes Powerful Driven Free Kicks)
Players with this trait have extra powerful driven free kicks, allowing them to smash the ball in。
在罚任意球的时候力度增加。可以大力轰门。最典型的是骡子:岔开双腿,深吸口气,抬起右脚,大力抽射,飞出横梁,双膝跪地,扼腕叹息。
7、外脚背射门(Outside Foot Shot.)
Enables the player curl shots with the outside of the foot.Helps if attacking with weaker foot.
增加外脚背射门的弧线(球更加转),对逆足的球员有帮助,拥有此隐藏的有伊瓜因、特维斯、穆勒等。
8、远射(Long Shot Taker).
Players with this trait are very good at taking shots from distance. Mostly noticeable on Ultimate Team where long shots are scored more often.
拥有此隐藏的球员,更加擅长远距离射门。往往在终极对决中一脚远射解决了比赛。
9、高速带球(Speed Dribbler (Skilled Dribbling)
With this trait, the ball sticks closer to the players feet for better ball control and is useful for quickly changing directions using LT+RT or L2+R2 depending on your platform. Some players with this trait: Lionel Messi, Cristiano Ronaldo & Franck Ribery.
带这个隐藏的球员,带球的时候球距离身体较近,易于控制球,而且容易快速变向。
10、精准长传(Long Passer)
Mostly center-midfielders have this trait, allowing them to pass the ball on longer distances without losing too much momentum.
通常来讲,中场球员爱有这个隐藏,能远距离的快速传球。
11、脚后跟传球(Heel Passer)
Allowing player to pass the ball by using heel
在背对队友的时候可以用脚后跟传球。
12、外脚背传球(OutsidePasser)
Allowing player to pass the ball by using outside foot。
在某些情况下可以使用外脚背传球。
13、花式解围(Acrobatic Clearance)
Adds spectacular defensive clearances to your game
Helps if not quite facing ball to clear it before striker.
在侧对球或背对球的时候,球员会使用绚丽的花式解围(侧勾、倒钩解围等)动作。仅韩服的传奇球星有。
二、心理类
1、与裁判争论(Argues With Officials)
If a player has this trait, it means that they tend to argue with officials more than others when the referee calls for a decision and they perhaps do not like it.
裁判判罚的时候爱与裁判争论。
2、适应不同位置(Flexibility)
这种球员一般可以打多个位置,并且可以适应不同位置。都出现在07赛季。和下面这个相对。
3、固守本位(Inflexible)
如果打非擅长位置,其某些属性数值或降低。最典型的就是06和07托尼,注定只能打ST.
4、领导力(Leadership)
Captains usually have this trait. It isn’t very noticeable in-game, but can be seen when the referee calls for a penalty and the captain jumps in to separate the players from the referee.
队长一般有这个隐藏。在游戏中不是很重要。比如裁判判罚点球时,球员会冲上去和裁判理论,拥有此隐藏的球员会把己方队员拉开。
5、自私(Selfish)
They do not tendly to pass ball when is in their's area. This trait is not noticeable as you’re the one controlling the players.
在自己位置进攻的时候不喜欢传球给队友。但是手打模式可忽略。
6、稳固可靠(Solid Player)
对自己的角色有很强的责任感。06/07阿比达尔、特里有此隐藏。
三、身体类
1、避免使用逆足(Avoids Using Weaker Foot)
This trait is usually given to players who have a low weak foot rating in FIFA and means that they prefer to shoot with their stronger foot.
这个隐藏专为天生残脚的人准备的。在射门的时候他们会喜欢用擅长脚。
2、任意球/点球制造者(Diver)
It means that the player tends to dive in order to get a free kick or penalty.
跳水,英文词就是最好的解释,为了得到了一个任意球或点球,他们已经熟读了《一个演员的自我修养》。
骡子强项。
3、偏好铲球(Dives Into Tackles)对应超玩数据库的“抢断高手”
This trait is usually given to CDMs or defenders. Players with this trait put an extra effort into stopping the ball by diving into tackles.
一般是CDM和后卫专属。拥有此隐藏的球员格外喜欢铲球来阻挡对方。如果一个铲断极其优秀球员拥有此隐藏未必不好,比如W拉姆,W罗霍。但是对于速度奇慢,侵略又高、铲断值低的球员来说就危险了,追着追着不上,倒地一铲,又不准,就要吃牌了。比如10阿莱克斯。
4、易受伤(injury Prone)
Having this trait means that the player gets injured easily in games.
在比赛中易受伤。
5、不易受伤(Injury-Free)
The opposite of the above-mentioned “Injury Prone” trait. Players with this trait rarely get injured when playing.
和易受伤相反,在比赛中不易受伤。
6、超级替补(Super Sub)
替补上场,体力旺盛(竟然还有这样的人)。代表07小白、07奥吉文登、07马丁斯。
四、位置
1、进攻组织者(Play Maker)
Players with this trait are very good at setting up goals or very good goal-scoring opportunities for the rest of the team.
擅长策划进球,能在恰当的时机助攻队友取得进球。
2、禁区之王(Target Forward)
在禁区内有更卓越的表现。06/07托尼,07/08德华有此隐藏。
3、反越位(Tries To Beat Offside Trap)
Players with this trait make well-timed runs to beat the offside trap and find open space to score.
能根据队友传球,伺机而动,以使得自己不越位,进而寻找开阔的空间射门得分。
第五节 门将
1、大力手抛球(GK – Long Thrower)
Goalkeepers with this trait can throw the ball very far, usually to the half-line if not further.
拥有此隐藏的门将能扔出更远的手抛球。通常能达到中场线左右。
2、拳击球(GK – Puncher)
This trait is good for goalkeepers at corners and crosses, as it allows them to punch the ball away instead of trying to grab it into the hands and risk losing control of it.
拥有此隐藏的球员,面对角球或传中球的时候,更易使用双手将球击出而不是去抓住它。
3、门将参与角球(GK – Pushes Up for Corners)
Goalkeepers with this trait go up for corners if you are on ultra attacking at the end of a game to give you an extra man in the penalty area。
在比赛行将结束时,你的球队仍然落后,这时候获得了一个角球,这将是最后的进攻机会(你进球或者角球发出对方破坏球到中场比赛结束)。有此隐藏的门将会参与到角球进攻中。
4、门将单刀球(GK One On Ones)
有此隐藏的门将在面对单刀球的时候,门将能力提升。
5、门线防守(Stay On Goal Line)
守门员更倾向站在门线位置防守,不选择轻易出击。
tell me sthg about Utopia
Utopia (from Greek: οὐ no, and τόπος, place, i.e. "no place" or "place that does not exist") is an imaginary island, depicted by Sir Thomas More as a perfect social, legal, and political system. It may be used pejoratively, to refer to a society that is unrealistic and impossible to realize. It has also been used to describe actual communities founded in attempts to create an ideal society.
Related terms
Dystopia is a negative utopia: a totalitarian and repressive world. Examples: George Orwell's 1984, Aldous Huxley's Brave New World, Alan Moore's V for Vendetta, Margaret Atwood's The Handmaid's Tale and Lois Lowry's The Giver.
Eutopia is a positive utopia, but has also been used to ironically describe the European Union[citation needed]
Outopia derived from the Greek 'ou' for "no" and '-topos' for "place" "a perfect place" a fictional, non-realistic place.
Heterotopia, the "other place", with its real and imagined possibilities (a mix of "utopian" escapism and turning virtual possibilities into reality) — example: cyberspace. Samuel R. Delany's novel Trouble on Triton is subtitled An Ambiguous Heterotopia to highlight that it is not strictly utopian (though not dystopian). The novel offers several conflicting perspectives on the concept of utopia.
Utopia is largely based on Plato's Republic. It is a perfect version of Republic wherein the beauties of society reign (eg: equalism and a general pacifist attitude), although its citizens are all ready to fight if need be. The evils of society, eg: poverty and misery, are all removed. It has few laws, no lawyers and rarely sends its citizens to war, but hires mercenaries from among its war-prone neighbors (these mercenaries were deliberately sent into dangerous situations in the hope that the more warlike populations of all surrounding countries will be weeded out, leaving peaceful peoples). The society encourages tolerance of all religions. Some readers have chosen to accept this imaginary society as the realistic blueprint for a working nation, while others have postulated More intended nothing of the sort. Some maintain the position that More's Utopia functions only on the level of a satire, a work intended to reveal more about the England of his time than about an idealistic society. This interpretation is bolstered by the title of the book and nation, and its apparent derivation from the Greek for "no place" and "good place": "Utopia" is a compound of the syllable eu, meaning good, and topos, meaning place. But the homonymous prefix ou, with the meaning "no," also resonates in the word: the perfectly "good place" is really "no place."
Economic Utopia
These utopias are based on economics. Most of them formed in response to the harsh economic conditions of the 19th century. Particularly in the early nineteenth century, several utopian ideas arose, often in response to the social disruption created by the development of commercialism and capitalism. These are often grouped in a greater "utopian socialist" movement, due to their shared characteristics: an egalitarian distribution of goods, frequently with the total abolition of money, and citizens only doing work which they enjoy and which is for the common good, leaving them with ample time for the cultivation of the arts and sciences. One classic example of such a utopia was Edward Bellamy's Looking Backward. Another socialist utopia is William Morris' News from Nowhere, written partially in response to the top-down (bureaucratic) nature of Bellamy's utopia, which Morris criticized. However, as the socialist movement developed it moved away from utopianism; Marx in particular became a harsh critic of earlier socialisms he described as utopian. (For more information see the History of Socialism article.)
Utopias have also been imagined by the opposite side of the political spectrum. For example, Robert A. Heinlein's The Moon Is a Harsh Mistress portrays an individualistic and libertarian utopia. Capitalist utopias of this sort are generally based on perfect market economies, in which there is no market failure—or the issue of market failure is never addressed, any more than socialist utopias address the issue of planning failures. Also consider Eric Frank Russell's book The Great Explosion (1963) whose last section details an economic and social utopia. This forms the first mention of the idea of Local Exchange Trading Systems (LETS).
Political and historical utopia
Political utopias are ones in which the government establishes a society that is striving toward perfection. Many such governments tend to be harsh in their execution of laws and allow little individualism if it conflicts with their primary goals. Many strive a controlled society where the state or government replaces religious and family values (and loyalties for that matter).
A global utopia of world peace is often seen as one of the possible inevitable endings of history.
Sparta was a militaristic utopia founded by Lycurgus (though some, especially Athenians, may have considered it a dystopia). It was a Greek power until its defeat by the Thebans at the battle of Leuctra.
Religious utopia
These utopias are based on religious ideals, and are to date those most commonly found in human society. Their members are usually required to follow and believe in the particular religious tradition that established the utopia. Some permit non-believers or non-adherents to take up residence within them; others (such as the Community at Qumran) do not.
The Jewish, Christian and Islamic ideas of the Garden of Eden and Heaven may be interpreted as forms of utopianism, especially in their folk-religious forms. Such religious "utopias" are often described as "gardens of delight", implying an existence free from worry in a state of bliss or enlightenment. They postulate existences free from sin, pain, poverty and death, and often assume communion with beings such as angels or the houri. In a similar sense the Hindu concept of Moksha and the Buddhist concept of Nirvana may be thought of as a kind of utopia.
However, the usual idea of Utopia, which is normally created by human effort, is more clearly evident in the use of these ideas as the bases for religious utopias, as members attempt to establish/reestablish on Earth a society which reflects the virtues and values they believe have been lost or which await them in the Afterlife.
In the United States and Europe during the Second Great Awakening of the nineteenth century and thereafter, many radical religious groups formed utopian societies. They sought to form communities where all aspects of people's lives could be governed by their faith. Among the best-known of these utopian societies was the Shaker movement, which originated in England in the 18th century but moved to America shortly after its founding. Other good examples are Fountain Grove, Riker's Holy City and 15 other Californian utopian colonies between 1855 and 1955 (Hine), as well as SointulaPDF in B.C., Canada and 15 other socialist and religious communities round the world, including Finnish "kolkhozes"in the largest utopian society ever, the Soviet Union (Peltoniemi).
Scientific and technological utopia
These are set in the future, when it is believed that advanced science and technology will allow utopian living standards; for example, the absence of death and suffering; changes in human nature and the human condition. These utopian societies tend to change what "human" is all about. Technology has affected the way humans have lived to such an extent that normal functions, like sleep, eating or even reproduction, has been replaced by an artificial means. Other kinds of this utopia envisioned, include a society where humans have struck a balance with technology and it is merely used to enhance the human living condition (e.g. Star Trek). In place of the static perfection of a utopia, libertarian transhumanists envision an "extropia", an open, evolving society allowing individuals and voluntary groupings to form the institutions and social forms they prefer.
Garrett Jones published "Ourtopia" in 2004, arguing that, instead of a 'no place' we need to use all the resources at our command to make 'our place' proof against climate change and obsolete tribalisms. Buckminster Fuller presented a theoretical basis for technological utopianism and set out to develop a variety of technologies ranging from maps to designs for cars and houses which might lead to the development of such a utopia.
One notable example of a technological and libertarian socialist utopia is Scottish author Iain M. Bank's Culture.
A variation on this theme was found earlier in the theories of Eugenics. Believing that many traits were hereditary in nature, the eugenists believed that not only healthier, more intelligent race could be bred, but many other traits could be selected for, including "talent", or against, including drunkness and criminality. This called for "positive eugenics" encouraging those with good genes to have children, and "negative eugenics" discouraging those with bad genes, or preventing them altogether by confinement or forcible sterilization.
Opposing this optimism is the prediction that advanced science and technology will, through deliberate misuse or accident, cause environmental damage or even humanity's extinction. Critics advocate precautions against the premature embrace of new technologies.
Utopianism refers to the various social and political movements, and a significant body of religious and secular literature, based upon the idea of a Utopia on earth. Utopianism is the opposite of a Dystopia. In a Utopian Society, everyone's needs are met, and all rights upheld.
In many cultures, societies, religions and cosmogonies, there is some myth or memory of a distant past when humankind lived in a primitive and simple state, but at the same time one of perfect happiness and fulfillment. In those days, the various myths tell us, there was an instinctive harmony between man and nature. Men's needs were few and their desires limited. Both were easily satisfied by the abundance provided by nature. Accordingly, there were no motives whatsoever for war or oppression. Nor was there any need for hard and painful work. Humans were simple and pious, and felt themselves close to the gods.
These mythical or religious archetypes are inscribed in all the cultures and resurge with special vitality when people are in difficult and critical times. However, the projection of the myth does not take place towards the remote past, but either towards the future or towards distant and fictional places (for example, The Land of Cockaygne, a straightforward parody of a paradise), imagining that at some time of the future, at some point of the space or beyond the death must exist the possibility of living happily.
These myths of the earliest stage of humankind have been referred to by various names, as the following examples will demonstrate:
Golden Age
The Greek poet Hesiod, around the 8th century BC, in his compilation of the mythological tradition (the poem Works and Days), explained that, prior to the present era, there were other four progressively most perfect ones, the oldest oldest of which was called the Golden age.
Also Plutarch, the Greek historian and biographer of the 1st century, dealt with the blissful and mythic past of the humanity.
Arcadia Arcadia, e g in Sir Philip Sidney's prose romance The Old Arcadia (1580). Originally a region in the Peloponnesus, Arcadia became a synonym for any rural area that serves as a pastoral setting, as a locus amoenus ("delightful place"):
The Biblical Garden of Eden
The Biblical Garden of Eden as depicted in Genesis 2 (Authorized Version of 1611):
And the Lord God planted a garden eastward in Eden; and there he put the man whom he had formed. And out of the ground made the Lord God to grow every tree that is pleasant to the sight, and good for food; the tree of life also in the midst of the garden, and the tree of knowledge of good and evil. [...]
And the Lord God took the man, and put him into the garden of Eden to dress it and to keep it. And the Lord God commanded the man, saying, Of every tree of the garden thou mayest freely eat: but of the tree of the knowledge of good and evil, thou shalt not eat of it: for in the day that thou eatest thereof thou shalt surely die. [...]
And the Lord God said, It is not good that the man should be alone; [...] And the Lord God caused a deep sleep to fall upon Adam, and he slept: and he took one of his ribs, and closed up the flesh instead thereof; and the rib, which the Lord God had taken from man, made he a woman, and brought her unto the man.
The Land of Cokaygne
The Land of Cokaygne [also spelled Cockaygne or Cockaigne] (in the German tradition referred to as "Schlaraffenland"[1]) has been aptly called the "poor man's heaven", being a popular fantasy of pure hedonism and thus a foil for the innocent and instinctively virtuous life that is depicted in all the other accounts mentioned above. Cockaygne is a land of extravagance and excess rather than simplicity and piety. There is freedom from work, and every material thing is free and available. Cooked larks fly straight into one's mouth; the rivers run with wine; sexual promiscuity is the norm; and there is a fountain of youth which keeps everyone young and active.
There is a medieval poem (c. 1315) written in rhyming couplets which is entitled "The Land of Cokaygne":
Far in the sea, to the west of Spain,
Is a country called Cokaygne.
There's no land not anywhere,
In goods or riches to compare.
Though Paradise be merry and bright
Cokaygne is of far fairer sight....
Finding utopia
All these myths also express some hope that the idyllic state of affairs they describe is not irretrievably and irrevocably lost to mankind, that it can be regained in some way or other.
One way would be to look for the earthly paradise -- for a place like Shangri-La, hidden in the Tibetan mountains and described by James Hilton in his Utopian novel Lost Horizon (1933). Such paradise on earth must be somewhere if only man were able to find it. Christopher Columbus followed directly in this tradition in his belief that he had found the Garden of Eden when, towards the end of the 15th century, he first encountered the New World and its peoples.
Another way of regaining the lost paradise (or Paradise Lost, as 17th century English poet John Milton calls it) would be to wait for the future, for the return of the Golden Age. According to Christian theology, man's Fall from Paradise, caused by man alone when he disobeyed God ("but of the tree of the knowledge of good and evil, thou shalt not eat of it"), has resulted in the wickedness of character that all human beings have been born with since ("Original Sin") such as Orwell's Nineteen Eighty-Four became the primary method of Utopian expression and rejection. (Kumar 1987)
Still, post-war era also found some Utopianist fiction for some future harmonic state of humanity (e.g. Demolition Man (film)).
In a scientific approach to finding utopia, The Global scenario group, an international group of scientists founded by Paul Raskin, used scenario analysis and backcasting to map out a path to an environmentally sustainable and socially equitable future. Its findings suggest that a global citizens movement is necessary to steer political, economic, and corporate entities toward this new sustainability paradigm.
Many works of utopian fiction depict an outsider, a time-traveler or a foreigner, who can be shown the features of the society so that they can be shown to the reader.
Characteristics of Fictional Utopia
Virginia Woolf was deeply critical of the level of characterization shown in many utopias, flatly asserting in her 1924 essay "Character in Fiction," "There are no Mrs. Browns in Utopia."
参考资料:http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utopia
求有关 Physical Attractiveness 一篇 英文的
Physical attractiveness
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Physical attractiveness is the perception of the physical traits of an individual human person as pleasing or beautiful. It can include various implications, such as sexual attractiveness and physique. Judgment of attractiveness of physical traits is partly universal to all human cultures, partly dependent on culture or society or time period, and partly a matter of individual subjective preference.
Despite the existence of universally agreed upon signs of beauty in both genders, both heterosexual and homosexual men tend to place significantly higher value on physical appearance in a partner than women do.[1] This can be explained by evolutionary psychology as a consequence of ancestral humans who selected partners based on secondary sexual characteristics, as well as general indicators of fitness (for example, symmetrical features) enjoying greater reproductive success as a result of higher fertility in those partners, although a male's ability to provide resources for offspring was probably signalled less by physical features.[1] There appear to be universal standards regarding attractiveness, such that raters agree who is and isn't attractive both within and across cultures and ethnicity.[2]
Physical attractiveness can have a significant effect on how people are judged, in terms of employment or social opportunities, friendship, sexual behavior, and marriage.[3] In many cases, humans attribute positive characteristics, such as intelligence and honesty, to attractive people without consciously realizing it. Physical attractiveness is distinct from sexual attraction; humans often regard children and young individuals—both human and animal—as being highly attractive for various reasons, but without sexual attraction.
Contents [hide]
1 Determinants of male physical attractiveness
1.1 Build
1.2 Height
1.3 Variability in preferences
2 Determinants of female physical attractiveness
2.1 Signals of youth
2.2 Breast size
2.3 Proportion of body mass to body structure
2.4 Waist-hip ratio
2.5 Height
2.6 Prototypicality as beauty
2.7 Skin tone
3 Social effects of attractiveness
4 See also
5 Notes
6 References and bibliography
7 External links
[edit] Determinants of male physical attractiveness
The Carlson Twins are typically judged as being highly physically attractive for their slim waists and muscular chests.
[edit] Build
Research has found that male physiques with slim waists are rated as being attractive, particularly by females. [4] Participants also identified physiques with relatively broad shoulders as being attractive. In addition, chest muscularity resulted in slightly higher attractiveness ratings.[4] Preference can also emerge for muscularity, though research has shown that Western men have a tendency to overestimate the amount of muscle considered ideal by women by as much as thirty pounds, whereas Asian men collectively do not exhibit such a misconception.[5] A normal level of the hormone testosterone is a possible indicator of good sexual health. In the absence of normal testosterone levels, a man may exhibit physical symptoms of less muscle development and physical height reduction.
A near-universal sexually attractive feature of a man is a v-shaped torso: a relatively narrow waist offset with broad shoulders. While some cultures prefer their males huskier and others leaner, the rule of a v-shaped torso generally holds true. Consistently, men with a waist-to-shoulder ratio of 0.75 or lower are viewed as considerably more attractive than men with more even waists and shoulders. [6]
[edit] Height
Female's sexual attraction towards a male can be partly determined by the height of the man.[7] Women seem more receptive to an erect posture than men, though both prefer it as an element of beauty; this fact appears correlated to the preference for males who demonstrate confidence, physical strength, and a powerful bearing. This preference can be explained by evolutionary psychology as the fact that ancestral women who were attracted to tall, physically powerful men benefited from better protection and therefore gained evolutionary fitness.[8] Additionally, height in men is associated with status in many cultures, which is beneficial to women romantically involved with them. This preference was passed on genetically. As a corollary, short men are viewed as unattractive for both casual and intended long-term relationships. Studies of women's personal ads support the existence of this preference; in one study of ads requesting height in a mate, 80 percent requested a height of 6 feet or taller. However, this percentage only was of ads specifying height in the first place, and therefore possibly self-selected and/or biased by a third factor such as female height.[8]
Recent research has found that women are statistically more likely to be attracted to men of average height when looking for long-term commitment, while the opposite is true when a short-term relationship is intended.[9] Cosmopolitan Magazine published an article stating that women are most attracted to men who are 1.1 times their own height. In addition, it was found that women have these different preferences for height depending on the phase of their menstrual cycle at the time. While women usually desire men that are at least the same height as themselves or taller, other factors also determine male attractiveness.[9]
[edit] Variability in preferences
It has been shown that women prefer more masculine men during the fertile period of the menstrual cycle and more feminine men during other parts of the cycle.[10] This distinction supports the sexy son hypothesis, which posits that it is evolutionarily advantageous for women to select potential fathers who are traditionally masculine rather than the best caregivers.[11] Masculine facial features are characterized by a strong brow, a strong nose, a high forehead[citation needed] and a broad jaw whereas feminine features are less pronounced.
[edit] Determinants of female physical attractiveness
Features such as a symmetrical face, full lips, and low waist-hip ratio are commonly considered physically attractive when part of a female, because they are thought to indicate physical health and high fertility to a potential mate. The determinants of female physical attractiveness include those aspects that display health and fitness for reproduction and sustenance. These include correlates of fertility such as youth,[12] waist-hip ratio,[13] mid upper arm circumference,[14] body mass proportion[15] and facial symmetry.[16][17]
[edit] Signals of youth
Because female fecundity typically declines after the late twenties, youth is an important aspect of physical attractiveness[18]. One study across 37 cultures showed men desire, on average, a woman 2.5 years younger than themselves for a wife, with men in Nigeria and Zambia at the far extreme, desiring their wives to be 6.5 to 7.5 years younger. As men age, they also desire a larger age gap from their mates.[12] The reasons for this preference are currently debated.
This preference for youth has also led to a preference of neotenic and youthful-appearing features. Full lips, clear, smooth skin, clear eyes, lustrous hair, and good muscle tone are all viewed as attractive in women.[12]
[edit] Breast size
Large breasts have also been shown to be attractive to men in Western societies, with the explanation that larger breasts will more explicitly show the aging process, hence an "honest" indicator of fertility.[19] Another explanation is that large breasts increase the size of the chest, and thus decrease the relative size of the waist; to an observer, a woman’s waist looks thinner if she has large breasts.[20]
The sexual selection based on breast size is one of the many reasons for the growing average breasts volume over the generations, together with changing nutrition habits and increased hormone levels.[21]
[edit] Proportion of body mass to body structure
The Body Mass Index (BMI) is another important universal determinant to the perception of beauty.[15] The BMI refers to the proportion of the body mass to the body structure. However, the optimal body proportion is interpreted differently in various cultures. The Western ideal considers a slim and slender body mass as optimal while many historic cultures consider an embonpoint or plump body-mass as appealing.[22][23] Men don't seem to have evolved to hold a particular build as more attractive, but rather to be drawn to whichever build associates with social status.[23]
However, it should be noted that, in the United States, women overestimate men's preferences for thinness in a mate. In one study, American women were asked to choose what their ideal build was and what they thought the build most attractive to men was. Women chose slimmer than average figures for both choices, though when American men were independently asked to choose the female build most attractive to them, they (the men) chose figures of average build, indicating that women may be misled as to how thin men prefer women to be.[23]
The attraction for a proportionate body also influences an appeal for erect posture.[24]
[edit] Waist-hip ratio
Main article: waist-hip ratio
Notwithstanding wide cultural differences in preferences for female build, scientists have discovered that the waist-hip ratio (WHR) of any build is very strongly correlated to attractiveness across all cultures.[23] Women with a 0.7 WHR (waist circumference that is 70% of the hip circumference) are usually rated as more attractive by men from European cultures. Such diverse beauty icons as Jessica Alba[25], Marilyn Monroe, Sophia Loren, and the Venus de Milo all have ratios around 0.7.[26] In other cultures, preferences vary,[27] ranging from 0.6 in China,[28] to 0.8 or 0.9 in parts of South America and Africa,[29][30][31] and divergent preferences based on ethnicity, rather than nationality, have also been noted.[32][33]
[edit] Height
Most males exhibit a preference for females of shorter physical stature than themselves, and studies indicate that women of below average height have greater reproductive success.[34] An advantage to smaller size may be that it is seen as more youthful, and males find pedomorphic characteristics in females attractive.[35] Another possible (but unproven) explanation is that shorter females may reach sexual maturity earlier than their taller counterparts.[34]It can also be argued that a shorter, and often generally smaller, female is more attractive to males by bringing out the traditional instincts of protection.
[edit] Prototypicality as beauty
See also: Koinophilia
See also: Averageness
Besides biology and culture, there are other factors determining physical attractiveness. The more common features a face bears, the more highly it is usually judged to be attractive. This may be a result of the familiarity of common facial features, an example of the mere exposure effect. When many faces are combined into a composite image (through computer morphing), people usually view the resulting image as more familiar, attractive, and beautiful than the faces that were combined to make the composite.[36] One interpretation is that this shows an inherent human preference for prototypicality. That is, the resultant face emerges with the salient features shared by most faces, and hence becomes the prototype. The prototypical face and features is therefore perceived as symmetrical and familiar. This may reveal an "underlying preference for the familiar and safe over the unfamiliar and potentially dangerous."[16] However, critics of this interpretation point out that compositing computer images also has the effect of removing skin blemishes such as scars, and generally softens sharp facial features.
Classical conceptions of beauty are essentially a celebration of this "prototypicality." This may show the importance of prototypicality in the judgment of beauty, and also explain the emergence of similarity of the perception of attractiveness within a community or society, which shares a gene pool.
[edit] Skin tone
In his foreword to Peter Frost's 2005 Fair Women, Dark Men, U. of Washington sociologist Pierre L. van den Berghe summarizes:
"Although virtually all cultures express a marked preference for fair female skin, even those with little or no exposure to European imperialism, and even those whose members are heavily pigmented, many are indifferent to male pigmentation or even prefer men to be darker."[37] A consequence of this is that, since higher-ranking men get to marry the more attractive women, the upper classes of a society generally tend to develop a lighter complexion than the lower classes by sexual selection (see also Fisherian runaway).[38]
Another feature is skin color on the spectrum of dark to light. As with many determinants of attractiveness, there are cultural differences: lighter tones are preferred by some cultures, while in others, tanned or darker skin is preferred.[citation needed] For some time after the Victorian era, lighter skin was preferred, as it was considered a marker of a more "cultured" individual or "gentlewoman" who did not have to engage in outdoor labor.[citation needed] In the 20th and 21st centuries Western world, tanned skin has often been considered highly attractive for both men and women. Here, the tan has come to carry with it connotations of having an active outdoor lifestyle or frequent vacations in the sun, thus better (implied) physical health or wealth.[citation needed]
In eastern parts of Asia, including Southeast Asia, this preference for lighter skin remains prevalent. In East Asia in particular, fair skin is associated with youth, since skin darkens with exposure to the sun and aging. This conflation of youth and beauty is not exclusive to East Asia, and can be linked to the phenomenon of neoteny. Thus, sales of skin whitening cosmetic products are popular in East Asia. A preference for fair skin however is not a recent development, and in China, for example, can be traced back to ancient drawings depicting women and goddesses with fair skin tones.
[edit] Social effects of attractiveness
When a person is seen as attractive or unattractive, assumptions are brought into play. Across cultures, what is beautiful is assumed to be good. Attractive people are assumed to be more extroverted, popular, and happy, and attractive people do tend to have these characteristics. However, this is may be due to self-fulfilling prophecy; from a young age, attractive people receive more attention that helps them develop these characteristics.[39][40]
Physical attractiveness can have various effects. A survey conducted by London Guildhall University of 11,000 people showed that those who subjectively describe themselves as physically attractive earn more income than others who would describe themselves as less attractive.[41] People who described themselves as less attractive earned, on average, 13% less than those who described themselves as more attractive, while the penalty for being overweight was around 5%. It is important to note that other factors such as self-confidence may explain or influence these findings as they are based on self-reported attractiveness as opposed to any sort of objective criteria; however, as one's self-confidence and self-esteem are largely learned from how one is regarded by their peers while maturing, even these considerations would suggest a significant role for physical appearance. Although one reason that unattractive people might not have friends is because they have low self-esteem.
Some have proposed that discrimination against or prejudice towards others based on their appearance should be referred to as Lookism[citation needed].
Many have asserted that certain advantages tend to come to those that are perceived as being more attractive, including the ability to get better jobs and promotions, receiving better treatment from authorities and the legal system, having more choices in romantic partners and, therefore, more power in relationships, and marrying into families with more money.[42][39][40]
Both men and women use physical attractiveness as a measure of how 'good' another person is. However, in terms of sexual behavior, some studies suggest little difference between men and women. Symmetrical men and women have a tendency to begin to have sexual intercourse earlier, to have more sexual partners, to engage in a wider variety of sexual activities, and to have more one-night stands. They are also prone to infidelity and are more likely to have open relationships.[43] Symmetrical men and women are also best suited for their environment, and their physical characteristics are most likely to be inherited by future generations.
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